Political Sciences: Religions in Japan and China

Religion is the faith in and the worship of a controlling superhuman power, which is mainly termed as gods or God. According to Beck, et al. (2006), religion is the attitude, complex experiences, emotions, ideas, rituals, texts, symbols, and convictions, which social beings and individuals express, live out, and identify their fundamental relationships with as it is a source that encompasses their lives in the world. There are different religious beliefs across the world, and all the major world religions differ from each other due to the various aspects that are believed do distinguish each of the majority of religions practiced throughout the world.

The Japanese religions have been greatly influenced by the religions that appeared in China. Most of the religions found in Japan mostly originated from China, which implies that the two countries share the same religions and religious aspects although there may be very few differences between the practices, which can be explained by the adaptability of the religion from China to Japan (Bowring, 2005). The most widely practiced religions in Japan are Shinto and Buddhism. The Asian religions that were prevailing in both China and Japan include Buddhism, Shintoism, and Hinduism.

In Japan and China, Buddhism is one of the main religions that are widespread among the population of the two states. The original Chinese Buddhism was first introduced to Japan by monks who came from China, after which it independently advanced from Chinese Buddhism. Buddhism practices in China slightly differ from Buddhism in Japan as it normally has some overlapping sects and different names such as Tibetan and Chinese Buddhism although the religious aspects and teachings are similar (Goldburg, Blundell & Jordan, 2012). In fact, Japan’s Zen Buddhism differs very much from China’s Tibetan Buddhism. In Zen Buddhism, people are encouraged to pursue happiness and achieve the enlightenment of Buddha while according to Tibetan Buddhism, there is a belief that individuals have to exercise love empathy for each and every person and follow this rule on the way towards enlightenment.

Other religions practiced in Japan, such as Confucianism and Taoism, also had their origins in China and were inspired by Chinese Buddhism. Shinto is one of the religions practiced in both China and Japan and is Japan’s main religion along with Buddhism. Nowadays, Japan is a country that can be considered almost Atheist because the majority of its population neither practice any of the religions nor believe in any gods or God (Bowring, 2005). The Abrahamic religions, which were widely practiced, include Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, and they were all believed to be descended from Abraham. Other religions, which were practiced in Japan, were also practiced in China according to the table illustrated below.

Table 1

Religions in China and Japan

	China	Japan
Main religions	· Chinese traditional religion · Folk religious sects · Confucianism · Taoism · Ritual mastery traditions · Chinese shamanic traditions · Buddhism · Chinese Buddhism · Tibetan Buddhism	· Shinto · Buddhism
Minor religions	· Mongolian folk religion · Tibetan Bon · Yi Bimoism · Zhuang Moism · Others	· Ryukyuan folk religion · Ainu folk religion · Chinese folk religion
Abrahamic religions	· Christianity · Islam · Judaism · Bah?’? Faith	· Christianity · Islam · Judaism · Bah?’? Faith
Other religions	· Manichaeism · Hinduism · Zoroastrianism · Shinto	· Taoism · Confucianism · Hinduism · Jainism

Religious Aspects

The aspects of a religion are the essentials, which are found in the foundation of any religion; they all provide a more detailed understanding of the practiced religion.

1) Beliefs

Both China and Japan practiced Asian religions, all of which originated from the countries in the Asian region. Some of these regions include Buddhism, Shintoism, and Hinduism. The Asian religions had a very strong belief in the existence of multiple gods in contrast to some other religions, according to which the only one God exists. Reincarnation is another belief peculiar to Buddhism, which means that the spirit and the soul always get a new life after death. There is also the belief that the afterlife of a person will be determined by what way of living he or she followed when they were alive meaning that all actions have consequences in the afterlife. Another belief implies that there are three universal truths, which are Anatta, Dukkha, and Annica (Beck et al., 2000).

Christianity is one of the most practiced Abrahamic religions in both China and Japan. All the religious aspects in these countries are similar while the main belief states that Jesus Christ is God’s son and the messiah. The Christians also believe in the Holy Trinity (The Father, The Son, and The Holy Spirit) (Breuilly, O’Brien & Palmer, 1997). Along with that, the Christians believe that Virgin Mary gave birth to Jesus; the religion also implies that only one God exists. Other beliefs include monotheism, and belief in the death and resurrection of Christ. The Christians also believe that life after death is determined by how an individual lives his life, which will further define whether the individual goes to heaven or to hell.

2) Ethics

The ethical principles peculiar to Buddhism are similar in China and Japan and include 5 Precepts: do not steal, do not take alcohol, do not tell lies, and do not engage in a sexual relationship. There are also Eightfold Path and Four Noble Truths, which are associated with Buddhism (Clark, Kennick & Langree, 2001).

Since Christianity is practiced in both countries, it shows that the ethical principles followed in the two countries by the Christians are the same. The ethics of Christianity is mainly based on the Ten Commandments and the teachings of Jesus Chris,t which can be found in the Bible.

3) Ceremonies and rituals

The ceremonies and rituals conducted by the Buddhists in both China and Japan are similar. In fact, there is a great number of sacred ceremonies and rituals, which are associated with the different religions that are practiced throughout the world. Thus, some of the rituals, which are associated with Buddhism, include meditation, matras (Sacred sounds), prayer wheels, which is the reciting of the mantras, mudras, which is symbolic hand gestures, and pilgrimage, which involves the visitation of sacred sites (Green & Samuel, 2012). Buddhism in Japan and China is practiced in small groups and different temples throughout the two countries. Sometimes, it can also be practiced at home, without even the need to visit the congregational meetings.

The Christian ceremonies and rituals practiced in Japan and China are very similar in terms of following and implementation (Bowring, 2005). The major ritual in Christianity is the attending church services on Sunday, which is considered to be the holy day. Some of the rituals include singing and praying. Christians pray on a regular basis, and reading of the Bible is also one of the rituals that can be followed either at the church or at home. Other significant rituals include communion and baptism because almost all the Christians f are baptized either when they are young or even when they are adults.

4) Stories and Religious Myths

There is a great resemblance to the Buddhist stories and myths in Japan and China. According to Buddhists, there are many stories and myths, which are believed to contain moral meanings and lessons; some of the Buddhist stories include the lost son, the worm, the tail, love, happiness, angry Buddha, and the thief. For instance, the story of The Worm, which was written by Ajahn Brahmavamso, describes a story about two monks who were best friends and spent all their lives in a monastery (Beck et al., 2000). When the two friend monks eventually died, one was reborn into the realms of heaven while the other friend monk was reborn as a worm in a dung pile. The monk who was reborn in heaven tried to help his monk friend get out of the dung pile and join him on heaven, but the worm monk was too arrogant and proud as he claimed that his life was much better and happier in the dung pile.

The Christian stories and myths in China and Japan have the same contents. This religion abounds in stories that provide a moral lesson and have deep meanings behind them. Some of these stories include The Prodigal Son, The Good Neighbor, The Mustard Seed, The Good Samaritan, etc., with deep meanings in their contents. For instance, the story of The Prodigal Son is a Christian story, which is found in the Christian scriptures. It is a story about a hardworking man who had two sons. The youngest son requested his father to share his portion of the estate and inheritance so that he could take care of his own portion by himself, and his father obeyed and shared everything he owned with his two sons. Immediately after the youngest son got his share of the property, he set off on a journey to a very far land where he spent all the fortune his father had given to him on earthly pleasures. When he found out that he wasted everything on his pleasures, he sought for a job where he got to feed pigs. He never had any food, so the circumstances forced him to eat and dine with the pigs until he came back to his senses and understood that it was better to work in his father’s estate than feed pigs as his father treated his workers nicely. He went back to his father, begged for his forgiveness, and, to his astonishment, his father forgave him and tried to explain to his elder son why he had to forgive his younger son.

5) Symbols

In Buddhism, there is a total of eight symbols that are commonly found in the Buddhist flag, which is the Tibetan prayer flag commonly used in ritual art. The symbols are incorporated into mandalas. They include the parasol, which represents spiritual power and royalty; the golden fishes, which show redemption, fertility, and good fortune; the treasure vase representing material and spiritual abundance; the lotus, which represents spiritual and mental purity; Conch shells representing Buddha’s teachings fame; the endless knot, which shows the infinite wisdom of Buddha; the victory banner, which illustrates Buddha’s teachings victory; and finally, the wheel, which represents all Buddha’s teachings (Green & Samuel, 2012).

Christianity symbols in Japan and China have similar images and representations. There are several symbols such as animals, angels, crosses, objects, stars, holidays, colors, numbers, etc. The cross is the most significantly recognized Christian symbol in all countries that practice Christianity. It is known to represent great sacrifice, which was God’s salvation offer to humanity as well as a promise of resurrection.

6) Religious experience

A religious experience can leave an individual with a clear understanding of God and a sense of awareness. The experience can either be auditory, visual or sensed. Some of the religious experiences were obtained in situations when people claimed that they had visions of some good or bad things that could happen in the future, and in reality, their visions became true. Some people can have religious experiences, without realizing that they have it, which, in some religions, means that the person could encounter some angels who have taken the form of people; thus, the individual fails to know what happens until much later.

The religious experiences of Buddhism imply meditation. One of the religious experiences in Buddhism is forgiveness and the ability to let go of any negative thought or experience; the healing of the heart and mind at the beginning of a new day is also a religious experience peculiar to Buddhism. Other religious experiences found in Buddhism in both Japan and China are the honest non-judgmental reality, joy, non-violence and inner peace, gratitude, humility, and self-honesty. Through meditation, a person tries to bring to peace his or her mind and try to forget all earthly things.

Being a major religious practice in Japan and China, Christianity has some religious experiences, according to which people believe in divine intervention, As a result of this, some wrong actions could be changed into a better thing, without being given an explanation or through the interference of higher-order beings who are considered to be a direct encounter with the one and only God.

7) Social structure

The adherents of Buddhism forming its laity are ordinary people. This religion also has nuns and monks following or the monastic orders and living their lives in enclosed communities according to the Buddhists’ guidelines. Buddhism does not have any hierarchical structures as it is the case with other religions, such as Abrahamic religions, although it still has some structured order of the community monks, which is known as the Sangha as it has a very great significance in the Buddhist religion. This order is aimed at the promotion of enlightenment attainment because when an individual takes the step of becoming an apprentice, then he or she is sanctified as being a nun or a monk. It is mainly practiced in temples.

The social structure of Christianity is divided according to the different divisions: Protestantism, Catholicism, and Eastern Orthodoxy. The hierarchy order of Christianity includes the Pope who has the highest rank, the Cardinals, the Patriarch, major Archbishops, Primates, Metropolitan bishop, Archbishops, and finally, the Diocesan Bishops.

8) Sacred writings and teachings

The sacred writings and teachings of Buddhism have the same contents in both China and Japan. In Buddhism, there is a great number of sacred writings and texts, which are normally further divided into two categories: canonical and non-canonical. This means that these scriptures could either be a part of the Bible or not. Some of these books include the Mahayana Sutras and the Tripitaka. Other sacred texts include the Dhamapada and Pali Cannon.

The Christian sacred writings and teachings are also similar in the two countries. The most recognized text by the Christians is the Holy Bible, which is mainly composed of two parts: the Old and New Testaments. The Old Testament is considered to be very identical to the Bible used by the Jews, and the New Testament includes writings of Jesus Christ and His disciples as well as different letters and apocalyptic writing.

Shinto and Buddhism in Medieval Japan

Throughout history, faith and religion played the role of the deciding factors dictating the peculiarities of the socio-cultural and political environment of Japan. Religion interfered with virtually all aspects of the life of the Japanese people. It seems rather a complicated task to define to which extent they were concerned about the fact that their local divinities and religious principles were integrated with the ones that were brought from outside. An attempt to assess the merging of Shinto and Buddhism, as well as the foundation of honji suijaku as a historical process, maybe a key to understanding people’s attitudes and perceptions of the respective events. By the time the concept of honji suijaku was introduced, however, Japan had formed a religious system of its own; thus, honji suijaku was intended to explain how the Japanese divinities were affected by the Buddhist religious tradition.

Faith and religion determined the patterns of interaction between people and affected the functioning of all branches of power in Japan as a state, not to mention religious doctrines, which dictated the moral principles the individuals and social groups were obliged to follow. Shinto is commonly referred to as Japanese local or native religious doctrines. Buddhism was introduced to Japan approximately in the twelfth century A.D. Shinto and Buddhism combined to found what the scientists and researchers would later refer to as the pre-modern stage in the history of Japanese religious practices. Honji suijaku came to be known as a notion that encompassed all features peculiar to the formation of the religious beliefs of Japanese people mainly referring to the process of integration of Shinto and Buddhism. The concept of kami combines the Buddhist religious practices, both eso- and exoteric ones, with the local traditions of Japan. Apart from it, another significant aspect of kami is its connection with moral and spiritual practices derived from Confucianism and Daoism (Blair 284). At different stages of the history of Japan, religious affiliations played an unprecedentedly important role constituting an integral part of the social, cultural, and political life of the country: “From the era of the statutory state, through the court-centered polity to the Fujiwara regency (sekkan seiji) and rule by retired emperors (insei) religion proved indispensable to sovereignty, political authority, and power relations” (Blair 284). In Medieval times, there was the idea of a monarch perceived through the lens of religious affiliation, specifically, Buddhism that shaped the political ideology (Blair 284). In the kami customs, traditions, and practices, on the other hand, an emperor was perceived as a person whose right to rule was divine.

Gender and religion were also connected to religion. Gender politics in Japan have been dictating the character of the religious practices of men and women as well as their expression for centuries (Blair 284). It is most important, however, that the patronage and pilgrimage in medieval Japan served to help people “to legitimate themselves and compete politically” (Blair 284). Religious institutions got juridical and economic control of natural and human resources through establishing the landholdings that took the form of manorial estates, which came to be known as shien in Japan (Blair 24). Manorial estates in medieval Japan were seen as so-called “power blocks.” The institutions like the above-mentioned estates were very similar in terms of their respective rights and functions (Blair 284). In general, the manorial estates contributed to the process of introducing Buddhism to Japan.

The evidence that supported it in medieval Japan was already a religiously diverse state. The Heian period came in history as a watershed that has paved the way for further development of a wide range of ritual, visual, and linguistic practices. The practices of different types that were developed in that period “identified kami ‘as secondary manifestations of buddhas and bodhisattvas” (Blair 288). Today, the rituals mentioned above are known under the name honji suijaku; as Blair puts it, “these practices were integral to Buddhism’s assimilation of non-Buddhist beliefs and practices” (Blair 289). Developing the proposed statement further, the researcher refers to the findings, which other scientists made, and claims that the practices that enabled the assimilation of non-Buddhist beliefs and practices by Buddhism within Japan “were fraught with political significance” (as quoted in Blair 289). Regarding this claim, it has been noted that the cults in medieval Japan were strongly localized (Blair 289). Evidently, the fact that the religious, visual, and linguistic practices of the country were abundant and localized helped to retain the religious diversity of Japan.

As Hiraoka and Nishiguchi explain it, the institutional history proved itself to be essential for understanding Heian religiosity (as quoted in Blair 289). Kufukuji and Kasuga Shrine extended their political and economic control over vast provinces of Japan in the period between the 12th and 13th centuries A.D. They became extremely powerful; therefore, they were able to affect the court decisions (Blair 289). Naturally, there came the time when Kufukuji and Kasuga started to constitute separate and distinct religious cultures. Nowadays, scholars call sophisticated iconography, strict narrative traditions, and close ritual ties to the court system the distinctive features of Kufukuji and Kasuga Shrine. Heian period is typically dated the period of 794–1185 (Andreeva 682). The scholars are inclined to think that by that time, Buddhism had been already firmly established in Japan. What is more important, however, Heian period is typically defined as a point in Japanese history when kami became identified with Buddhist deities. The term honji suijaku was specifically introduced to designate the process of the introduction of Buddhism to Japan (Andreeva 682). The religious transformation that Japan was undergoing during the Heian period affected the socio-cultural and political life of the state. Finally, the transition from Shinto to Buddhism was an extraordinary event even from a historical perspective.

In the twelfth century, Hunen, Shinran, and Dugen were still regarded newly established religious practices that co-existed with the honji suijaku cult. At the time the latter started to gain momentum in Japan, there were groups that tried to deny the validity of its practices. The main reason for it laid in the fact that the Japanese people were not prepared to stop worshiping kami (Andreeva 689). In addition to it, the generations of kami priests had started a campaign to produce the doctrinal texts of their own and explain the importance of establishing locally enshrined kami. In this respect, Watari of Ise who produced the tradition of Ise Shinto is being identified as, perhaps, the most prolific of all generations of kami priests (Andreeva 689). In general, Ise Shinto is, probably, the most vivid illustration of the process of the Japanese local divinities entering the Buddhist pantheon and of how two religious doctrines became intertwined on the Japanese ground. In the wider pantheon of deities, Amaterasu is being renowned as the Lord of Japan. However, according to honji suijaku tradition, she was considered a minor force. The imperial authority was reconstructed as the cult of Amaterasu started to gain momentum again. The dominant Buddhist worldview prompted the elevation of the goddess (Teeuwen 116). The rise of Amaterasu, conclusively, proves that Buddhism in Japan “kept the kami in a subordinate position” (Teeuwen 116). Regarding this fact, it is essential to admit that Buddhism in Japan has never succeeded in reversing and overcoming the kami tradition, except the fact that “it never reached beyond an extremely narrow circle of intellectuals” (Teeuwen 116).

In an attempt to disambiguate and outline the concept of kami, Mark Teeuwen makes the following assertion: “as they were incorporated into a Buddhist world-view, the kami ceased to be wild, untamed powers that would arbitrarily latch out at those around them, and instead became the executors of karmic retribution” (Teeuwen 116). Redefinition of Amaterasu is, therefore, not just a mere illustration of the inferiority of kami to Buddhist superiors but also the thing that provides the insight into the complexity of the religious transformations Japan has been undergoing in the Middle Ages. Iso Shinto cult emerged to help the Buddhist ideas spread over Japan (Kuroda and Rambelli 369). Assuming that the foregoing statement is correct, the rites of Iso Shinto can be viewed as a conclusive proof of the premise that Buddhism prospered in Japan and continues to do it to these days.

The scientific, socio-cultural, economic, and political aspect of life were influenced by the radicalization of the honji suijaku thought. Religious guidance and protection of kami remain the key principles of the honji suijaku doctrine today (Kuroda and Rambelli 372). Furthermore, the specialists in religious studies state that the interaction of Shinto and Buddhism hypertrophied the honji suijaku thought and made it more irrational (Kuroda and Rambelli 376). All things considered, honju suijaku shows how the Japanese native divinities became categorized as the universal Buddhist ones (Teeuwen and Rambelli 1). Technically, the concept of honji suijaku gives insight into how kami entered the Buddhist pantheon.

Disambiguating the construct of honji suijaku is the key to understanding pre-modern cultic system of Japan. Developing the foregoing statement further, the researchers claim that honji suijaku paradigm represents the objects that are mostly material by nature. With this idea in mind, they make a statement that “Buddhism’s attempts to domesticate and pacify the kami by incorporating them, also materially, within its system, ended up by producing ambiguous sacred entities” (Teeuwen and Rambelli 13). Edo period has become the time in the history of Japan when the honji suijaku doctrine spread across the entire country (Teeuwen and Rambelli 38). It was an exact moment, at which the religion was used to give the authorities religious legitimization (Teeuwen and Rambelli 38). At around that time, various entities, for example, kami, buddhas, and human beings represented the divinities of the honji suijaku pantheon (Teeuwen and Rambelli 38). In general, honji suijaku illustrates the complexity of the religious system established in Japan in the Middle Ages.

Even today, there is no unambiguous approach to understanding the implications of the integration of Shinto and Buddhism. Honji suijaku was the aftermath of the merger of cultures that started to assert itself in the Middle Ages when different peoples, traditions, groups, and ethnicities established new contacts. Honji suijaku was an important stage in the formation of the modern socio-cultural model of Japanese society. The theory illustrates the complexity and diversity of the religious system of Japan. Japanese people respected the kami and Buddhist divinities alike. Still, what was the attitude of the Japanese to the transformations that took place in their country in the Middle Ages is the question that requires additional and more extensive research. What is known for sure is that religion has been an integral part of Japanese people’s lives for centuries It has not changed until today? The merger of Shinto and Buddhism and the foundation of honji suijaku made the Japanese religious system more complex and ramified.

In conclusion, there are different religions, which are practiced in Japan and China. Most of the religions that are widespread in Japan had its origins in China. The two countries share the same religious movement. Although there might be slight differences in the religious structures due to the different cultures of the two countries, the religious aspects are all the same. The reason for this is the fact that most of the religions have universal religious aspects throughout the world as the teachings and scriptures of the religions are the same. This shows that Buddhism in China has the same teachings, texts, rituals, beliefs, ethics, social structure, myths, religious experiences, and symbols as in other countries that practice this religion, and the bright example is Japan. All religious aspects in religion almost the same in any country; the only differences consist in the aspects of various types of religions as their teachings, beliefs, and traditions may significantly differ from each other.